Creative Learning Environments for Teaching and Organizational Development Creative Learning Environments for Teaching and Organizational Development
Authors:
Dr. G. Puccio and Dr. Mary Murdock
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Self Assessment
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Creativity in Teaching/Training
I. Introduction and Purpose
What level of creativity characterizes your instruction? Do students/trainees view your instruction as creative? Does your instruction foster their creative development? What activities do you consciously plan to nurture their creativity?
The purpose of this unit of study is to provide higher education instructors, and organizational development trainers with information, practical suggestions and activities that will enhance their ability to utilize creativity in their teaching and student learning.
II. What is creativity in teaching ?
The term creativity, from an educational/training perspective, refers to the creative process within the teaching-learning environment. It involves the stages of thinking an individual goes through to generate original solutions to open-ended problems and opportunities. It is the ability to discover problems and opportunities, to generate novel ideas, and to transform these ideas into workable solutions. Creative thinking involves developing a clear vision of a future state and then delineating the steps necessary to achieve this image.
In what ways can creativity enhance the teaching, learning and organizational development and training process?
Perhaps the most productive approach to develop students’/trainees’ creative-thinking skills is to focus one’s efforts on the more concrete abilities subsumed by creative thinking. By targeting specific abilities, teachers and trainers are able to put a structure around creative thinking, thereby inviting students to directly manipulate one aspect of creative thinking at a time.
As Torrence and Safter (1990) pointed out:
People prefer to learn creatively – by exploring, questioning, experimenting, manipulating, rearranging things, testing and modifying, listening, looking, feeling – and then thinking about it – incubating. Schools and colleges have insisted that people learn by authority – by being told, incubation takes too long and is uneconomical. (p.13)
We believe that active instruction and organizational development is most beneficial to student learning, and that, in particular, creative-thinking skills are best taught through experiential delivery modes. If instructors truly desire to impact students’/trainees’ abilities to engage in creative thought, they must allow students/trainees to become active partners in the learning process. Creative thinking is a dynamic process whose full effect can only be appreciated through engagement. Expecting students to engage in creative thinking after exposure through passive learning modes (e.g., lecture, reading, etc.), is analogous to a surgeon who is expected to conduct an operation for the first time after only reading about it.
Active learning must be thoughtfully woven into one’s instruction. Experiential activities must be carefully selected and developed so that they enrich learning rather than distract students from the main goal of a lesson. To avoid the perception that experiential learning activities are frivolous, they must be well set up, implemented and debriefed. Any active learning exercise should not be treated as an end, but as a valuable means to and end; which is to encourage creative thinking and to engage students actively in the teaching-learning process.
III. Case Studies and Teaching, Learning and Organizational Development Activities
Professor Paradise and Organizational Development Trainer Trickey have amassed creditable records of effectiveness in promoting creative learning and organizational development among their respective students and staff.
It appears that these highly effective and popular instructors/trainers share several key teaching-learning strategies in their day-to-day instruction. While each possesses a strong desire to promote student and staff learning, they also believe that all students/trainees and staff have the ability to achieve at high levels of performance.
Instructional sessions usually begin with visuals including provocative illustrations that are associated with the primary objectives of the unit or lesson. Student/trainee attention is immediately drawn to the illustrations being displayed and an experiential connection is achieved through corresponding descriptions and thought provoking questions.
Each instructor/trainer systematically builds upon the motivation established by modeling, explaining and examining new information and concepts. Students/trainees are engaged in activities that allow for the evaluation or re-evaluation of information, search for new information and identification of erroneous information. Further, they begin to make new connections, experience all their senses, become absorbed in the material, or form hypotheses.
In the final stages of the instructional experience, both Professor Paradise and Organizational Development Trainer Trickey encourage students/trainees to go beyond the information presented, examined, and discussed. They offer strategies and activities that enable students/trainees to relate information to their own experiences, give information personal meaning, view implications for their respective futures, seek other resources for a deeper connections, and store information for possible future use.
IV Teaching and Training Models
How can teachers and organizational development trainers employ
creative teaching techniques to enhance learning?
Torrence and Saffer ModelA teaching model that can be used to design effective instructional experiences that include exercises is the Incubation Model described by Torrance and Safter (1990). The purpose of the Incubation Model is to help teachers and/or organizational development trainers design learning experiences that facilitate creative thinking. This teaching model includes three levels: ‘warming-up’ (i.e., before), ‘digging deeper’ (i.e., during), and ‘extending the effort’ (i.e., after).
According to Torrance and Safter, the purpose of warming-up includes sparking anticipation, creating a desire to know, getting attention, arousing curiosity, and encouraging motivation. The warming-up stage of an instructional experience is successful when the learner is able to see connections between the information about to be acquired and his or her own life experiences.
During the digging-deeper stage of the instructional experience the anticipation aroused earlier is now taken to a deeper level of understanding. Put in different words, the warming-up stage encourages students/trainees to unlock the doorway to their minds and the digging-deeper stage thrusts the door wide open. The digging-deeper stage is successful when students/trainees evaluate or re-evaluate information, seek new information, discard erroneous information, make new connections, experience all their senses, become absorbed in the material, or form hypotheses.
The purpose of the final stage of an instructional experience ‘extending the effort’, is to encourage students/trainees to go beyond the information presented by the instructor or textbook. The information processing strategies associated with this stage include: relating information to one’s own experiences, giving information personal meaning, seeing implications for one’s own future, seeking other resources for a deeper connection and storing information for possible future use.
Eckvall ModelAccording to Eckvall (1991) there are ten dimensions to a creative climate:
Challenge – the emotional involvement of people in daily activities and long-term goals
Freedom – the amount of independencein behavior and actions that people
Idea Support –the new ideas are treated.
Trust / Openness – the emotional safety present in relationships.
Dynamism / Liveliness – the eventfulness in the life of an organization.
Playfulness / Humor – Spontaneity and ease present in an organization
Debate – the occurrence of encounters or clashes between different viewpoints, ideas, experiences,or
Conflict – the presence of personal and emotional tension.
Risk-Taking – tolerance of uncertainty
Idea Time – the amount of time people have and actually use for elaborating on new ideas.MOTIVATING AND ENGAGING LEARNERS Bruce Baum, Ed.D.
Professor Exceptional Education Department
Buffalo State College
Introduction
This chapter has been written to provide practical ideas for higher education personnel and others who may wish to promote cooperation, creative problem solving, improved morale, communication, positive interpersonal interactions and humor in students, trainees or other audiences. It is a resource that can apply to individuals of varying ages and ability levels and can be used to achieve varied learning goals and instructional or training objectives.
Goals and Objectives
In any type of educational or training experience, the instructor or leader should have a purpose for any educational or training experience. Typically such a purpose is referred to as a goal or objective. If you realize you do not have any particular goals or objectives for your education or training, this should be a cause for concern. Work at determining what you want to achieve – what do the learners need to do to insure they are competent in their discipline or have the necessary knowledge and skills to do their job. To make it clear for yourself and others, record your goals and objectives on paper. As the teacher or leader, you should be consistently asking the question: “In what ways will this activity or exercise help in achieving the goal(s) or objective(s) of our educational program, or organization?” In my experience, if the leader doesn’t ask herself or himself the question of why you are doing what you are doing, you can bet that one or more of the students or participants will. If you find you cannot respond with a reasonable explanation of why you are conducting a particular educational experience or training activity, then do something different that will better meet your goals or objectives. Each activity described in this chapter incorporates one or more objectives. These may fit your particular circumstance or not. You should feel free to adapt these objectives and activities for various groups or situations. With some activities, possible adaptations are recommended.
In most instances you will want to explain your rationale for conducting an activity or exercise prior to leading it. Because some people are reluctant to touch others in an activity, I typically will provide a clear rationale for conducting any activities that involve physical contact between or among participants. I am careful to debrief those activities providing participants opportunities to share what they learned from the activity when it is over. In other situations, it may be more appropriate to draw out the lessons from the participants after they have completed the exercise. In my own teaching and training, an example of this is “Hula-Hoopla.” Although it incorporates minimal touch (holding hands), it is a powerful exercise: participants get clear messages as to why the activity is conducted, and they are usually able to articulate those points effectively following the activity. Safety
Safety is probably the most critical factor in leading exercises. If you have any reason to suspect that individuals or groups will not implement a particular activity in a safe manner, I strongly recommend you do not try that activity. I have had the opportunity to implement a number of team building exercises with adolescent students who have emotional and behavioral challenges. We discuss issues of trust, responsibility and safety prior to beginning the session. In the orientation, I am very clear that we will conduct physical activities but only on the condition that they be conducted in a safe and sane manner. If I perceive anything as unsafe, the activity is stopped immediately and we go on to activities that do not require the same level of trust and responsibility. I am very vigilant and follow through on the agreed upon guidelines when necessary. Generally, the students appreciate the fact that someone trusts them to be responsible; they meet my positive expectations, we have fun, they learn about themselves and a team spirit is generated. Suggested risk and physical demands levels are provided with each of the activities in this chapter. If you are concerned about the safety factor, I recommend you choose activities that have low risk or physical demand levels. Also, it is important to make a clear statement to all participants about the need to make each activity safe for everyone. If anyone observes any other participant engaging in potentially unsafe behavior, they are empowered to remind the person of the need for safety and/or to notify the leader. Also, each person is empowered to insure they do not take physical risks beyond their own capability.
Debriefing
Another important aspect of leading activities and exercises is debriefing. Debriefing follows an activity and has the purpose of insuring that the trainees or students have achieved or, at least, understand the goal or objective. Hedria Lunken, author, creativity consultant and executive coach, states that there are three questions to answer in debriefing: What?, So What? and Now What? What refers to what happened and what did the participants experience in the exercise. So what refers to the purpose of goal of the exercise – did the participants learn what you the leader had expected they would learn? Now what relates to the generalization or transfer of what was learned from the exercise to the work, personal growth or other aspects of the real world of the participants. To quote Sidney Parnes, past president of the Creative Education Foundation, “Creative exercises and activities are fun, but they are not for fun.” In other words, the activities should, in some way, help the person function better in her or his work, family, avocation or life in general. If the person can have an enjoyable or “fun” experience while doing that, then everyone wins.
Debriefing is a process through which participants often gain insights about themselves, others and the group. By listening to others and hearing what others learned, they can reflect on their own experience and see if they gained those same insights. Sometimes, the instructor or leader will share her/his goals for the activity and see if participants feel they were achieved. My usual approach is to ask if anyone would want to share anything about what they learned or experienced from the activity. I’ve participated in activities where the leader starts with one person and has each participant, in turn, comment on the activity or what insight they gained. This approach doesn’t fit my personal style because comments are frequently redundant, it can consume valuable time, and some people are uncomfortable sharing in a group setting. However, it does get people involved and it generates considerable feedback. If you choose to try it this way, I recommend starting with someone whom you feel had a positive experience with the activity or exercise.
The instructor or leader should have debriefing points and/or questions in mind or on paper – a 3 X 5 inch card can be helpful if the leader is concerned about remembering the points or questions. Debriefing is a good time for the leader to assess the readiness of a group for another experience or activity. For example, if I have conducted two or three activities of a physical nature and some people look tired, I might have the group sit for another type of learning experience such a lecture / discussion or video. If I the group looks excited and energetic and ready for another active exercise, I will probably continue with another active exercise.
Using Magic
Magic can be used in training for several possible purposes. It can help gain the attention of an audience, promote curiosity and relate to training goals and objectives. There are several points about using magic that may be of help:
If you use magic, make sure you have practiced well and the magic is set-up in advance. Being able to perform one or two tricks reliably and successfully is better than doing a mediocre job with three or five or ten tricks.
Only select magic tricks that can be seen by everyone in the audience. “Close up” magic can be very effective, but can only be viewed by a very small group.
Never reveal the secret of how the magic works.
Do not perform a trick more than once. The only reason people want a trick repeated is so they can watch more closely and possibly figure out how it is performed. The more times you perform a trick, the more likely the secret of the trick will be revealed.Presenting – Some Recommendations
Room and Equipment Arrangements: Work at selecting or arranging for a room that is conducive to your goals and objectives. In many higher education environments, instructors are unable to make modifications to a particular room. However, if you want the students to be able to move around rather than sit in fixed auditorium-style seats, then request a suitable room before the teaching schedule is completed. Make sure any audio-visual equipment is set up in advance and that it is in good working order. If you’re a using an overhead projector and screen, make sure everyone in the audience can see the image. About 80% of the time I find I can raise the screen six inches or more, which I do. This will help those in the back to see and lessens the chance that I will be blocking viewers with my body while showing transparencies. Also, if the top of the screen can be placed at an angle slightly closer to the audience, do so as this will keep the image square on the screen. Requesting those who provide the equipment to insure that a spare bulb is available will reduce the possibility of a change of plans in the middle of a presentation. Also, when using an overhead projector, be sure to face your audience. I have observed some presenters who treat the screen as they would a chalkboard. They turn away to point at something on the screen and end up talking to the screen rather than to the audience. This is unnecessary and inappropriate when using an overhead projector because one can point to things on the transparency (with a pointer, pencil, pen or even a finger) while still facing and staying connected with the audience.
Frequently the equipment is set up the way the equipment people feel is best but not necessarily the best for your particular presentation. If it is appropriate, feel free to ask for things to be moved to suit your needs or move them yourself if necessary. I often find that video monitors are placed farther from the audience than is necessary. I move the monitor as far forward as possible insuring that everyone can still see. I also find that many of the carts on which overhead projectors are placed do not have a place to set transparencies. Therefore, I now request a table and make sure the table is positioned near the overhead projector. Since I typically use magic and props in my presentations, I use the table for both the transparencies and a place to set my props.
If you are using a computer-generated presentation such as PowerPoint, it is very important that you do a test-run of the beginning part of your presentation to insure the “bugs” are worked out. Too frequently I’ve seen audiences sit while the presenter and others tried to get the equipment to cooperate. Also, arrange to have a set of transparencies of the presentation just in case something prevents you from displaying your computer-based presentation.
Do not allow the audience to see props or magic that you may not use in your presentation. If you have lots of “stuff” spread out on a table and you only use a few items during your speech or presentation, your audience may feel cheated. You might set several items out that you know you will be able to use and place the others behind the podium or table and bring them out if you need them.
If your goal involves having the members of the group work better as a team, insure that they do not always have the same partner or partners for different activities. There are a number of ways of randomly assigning participants to groups. Even after groups are constituted, you should also feel comfortable intervening and restructuring groups if you feel this is important for an optimal experience. For instance, in some activities I try to establish groups where the members are as heterogeneous as possible. If I randomly assign groups and one group is made up almost exclusively of males or females or older or younger people, I will approach members of another group and ask them to switch with people from the homogeneous group. This must be done immediately before groups start working together. Once a group begins working, there will a resistance on the part of participants to move to another group and then it is better just to leave the groups as they are.
Participants should always have the option to not participate in a particular activity. Individuals who choose not to participate, for whatever reason, should be encouraged to observe and might be asked later to comment on what process issues they observed.
Control the ending of the class or presentation and try to make it memorable. Usually the students or participants will remember the beginning and ending of your presentation and, we hope, one or two points in between. Ending on a powerful and memorable note will leave the audience wanting more. If you are to have a “questions and answers” segment, I recommend it come before the very end. Questions and answer sessions are a little risky in that sometimes no one has a question or a few are asked and answered and then the class or program just “dies” when there are no more questions. Occasionally, many questions are asked which prolongs the program, and those who were expecting to leave at a specificed time become anxious and upset. Rather than end with a “questions and answers session, reiterate your goals and objectives of the session and tell them you hope they go and apply them today or whenever. End with a story or joke that makes a point. End with a powerful quote. Loretta Laroche, noted humorist, speaker and stress reliever ends most of her presentations with: “Yesterday is history. Tomorrow is a mystery, and today is a gift – that’s why we call it the present.” I generally end my sessions with the quote: “Work like to you don’t need money. Love like you’ve never been hurt, and dance like no one’s watching.” See if you can find a similar quote you can call your own. Sometimes ending with a video can be good if it’s short and powerful. I also end some of my programs with the “Appearing Pole” or the “Disappearing Water” trick that are powerful and easy to perform. They can be purchased from magic shops and online sources. My hope is that those tricks aren’t the only things people remember and forget all the important stuff we talked about that they are supposed to remember.
Loosen up and have fun. Being a little “crazy” in front of students or adults may feel uncomfortable for you, but they typically appreciate it.
Watch your time. Part of being professional at speaking and lecturing is starting and ending on time. On occasion, I have started presentations later than was scheduled for various reasons beyond my control. I still plan on finishing at the agreed upon time. Be flexible and adapt to changing situations. Sivasailam Thiagarajan (A.K.A. “Thiagi”) is an old friend and an experienced and successful trainer. He conducted research on the habits and behaviors of successful trainers and found a common characteristic – the ability to be flexible and make needed adjustments during a presentation. Haven’t we all seen presenters who were conducting their presentation as if it was a memorized and rehearsed performance or their part in a play? This is fine until someone interrupts with a question or something else disrupts her or his train of thought. The challenge is to be prepared but ready to make changes as needed. I find I do this a lot. If a group is responsive to a certain type of activity, I will try another that is similar rather than the one I had planned previously. If I have had several questions and a discussion during the program or a debriefing session has needed to be longer and I am running out of time, I will drop an activity that I had planned. In other words, instructors and presenters are constantly assessing their audience, themselves and the training or instruction and making adjustments as things progress. Some of this comes from experience and some from vigilance of self and the group in order to determine if things are progressing ideally or if modifications are needed.
Include humor in instruction and training. Humor can do much to gain and keep the attention of an audience, and create an enjoyable experience. Keep in mind, however, that in most instances your goal will not be to entertain the audience but to provide them with needed knowledge or skills. If you provide the necessary information or skills in a humorous manner, it should prove to the advantage of you and the participants, students or trainees. As Tom Antion states on his website: No one ever lost credibility by being interesting. Following are some principles for including humor in presentations and training:
Have the humor you share fit your style and personality. If it does not feel natural, it is likely that you will discontinue the behavior.
Become comfortable laughing at any mistakes you might make in front of your audience.
Have any humor you select relate to your instructional or training goals and objectives.
Focus humor on yourself rather than the participants.
Avoid sarcasm and any negative forms of humor.
In your planning, think of humorous examples or activities that relate to the topic and goals of your training.
Don’t think you need to become a comedian. Telling jokes is only one of numerous ways to integrate humor in presentations and workshops.
Integrate humor throughout a training program rather than just at the beginning.
Joel Goodman of The Humor Projectrecommends that presenters apply the “AT&T” test. Is the humor Appropriate, Timely and Tasteful?
Take some risks. Doing something wacky or weird in front of your participants may seem uncomfortable, but it will get their attention and, even if they do not express it, they ususally appreciate and remember it.
Find humorous pictures, posters, quotes and put them around the training room.
Learn a magic trick and try it with a friend or your family before performing it in front of a group. Have the trick relate to a training objective.
Develop some system for the storage and retrieval of humor – a system that fits your personality and style of working so you will maintain the process.ACTIVITIES: ICEBREAKERS, ENERGIZERS AND EXERCISES
Activity: Cars
Purpose: To promote teamwork; trust; to illustrate that people have varying levels of comfort with trust; that fun can be experienced from activities that do not require winning or losing.
Number of Participants: 10 or more
Risk Level: moderate
Physical Demands: low to moderate
Time Required: 10-15 minutes
Materials Needed: None
Directions:
Arrange participants in dyads. If there is an odd number of participants, there will be one group of three.
Tell the participants that they are going to play “Cars.”
Ask for a volunteer to demonstrate the activity. When a volunteer comes forward, say that everyone will be driving her or his own car. Place your hands on the shoulders of the volunteer. Tell everyone that these cars all have bumpers and horns. For bumpers, the elbows are bent, the forearms raised, and the palms face outward. Demonstrate that move for the volunteer set her or his bumpers. Tell everyone that to beep the horn, one or both shoulders are squeezed. Squeeze a shoulder and the volunteer should “beep.”
Briefly demonstrate “driving” the person around by gently pushing the “car” forward while holding on to the shoulders and turning the person as needed using the shoulders as a “steering wheel.”
Ask the participants to decide who will be the “driver” and who will be the “car” and wait until you tell them to start before beginning. In the event that there is an uneven number of participants, there will be one group of three who will be a “truck” – two people in the front and one driver.
Just before they start the activity, mention that you forgot one point. Since this is an activity designed to promote trust among the participants, the cars are to have their eyes closed. Also, the activity is to be conducted in the area designated (a small area is best and boundaries can be established if necessary), that no one is to leave the area or room, and that there are no “roads” (cars can go in any direction).
“Cars” then close their eyes and the activity begins with you setting a speed of “five miles an hour.” After about a minute you can increase the speed to “ten miles an hour” and subsequently to “fifteen miles an hour” if you feel the group is proceeding in a safe manner. After about three minutes all are told to “Stop and switch!” (with great moaning and groaning from the participants). The cars and drivers exchange places and the same directions and times are followed.Activity: Hog Call
Purpose: To promote trust, communication and listening skills.
Number of Participants: 10 or more
Risk Level: moderate
Physical Demands: low to moderate
Time Required: 10-15 minutes
Materials Needed: None. However this works best with a large area or space indoors or out.
Directions:
Arrange participants in dyads.
Direct the participants to huddle together so others cannot hear them and, as a pair, come up with a compound word or two words that go together in some logical way. Examples are then solicited from the group (e.g. hotdog, sunshine, lightbulb, Beavis and Butthead, salt and pepper, etc.). If members of the group show confusion, you can provide several additional examples. It is important to point out that the word or words do not have to be original. In the event that there is an odd number of people in the group and there is a group of three, they are told they need to come up with something that has three parts (e.g. Curly, Larry, and Moe; Snap, Crackle and Pop, any three colors, etc.).
Once they have their terms, tell them to assign one part of the word or words to one person and the other part(s) to the other person(s) (e.g. one person is “hot” and the other is “dog”).
Direct them to separate from each other. One person goes to one side of the room or playing area and one to the other. Usually 20-30 feet is far enough. Both groups should then be facing each other but they should not be standing directly across from their partner.
Tell them that in a minute everyone will close his or her eyes and try to find their partner by moving slowly forward calling out their own partof the word or words. At the same time, their partner is moving forward calling out his/her term. Thus everyone will be moving forward with their eyes closed calling out their term simultaneously. When they find their partner, they can open their eyes and should move to the side so others who are still looking can find their partner.
The activity is over when everyone has found her/his partner. A variation which involves greater risk (shared by Alan Black) is that various obstacles can be in or be placed in the playing area and the participants have to get around or through those in order to find her/his partner. If there is time and the group is not too large, the leader can have the participants go around and tell what two or three-part terms they were calling out.Activity: Hula Hoopla
Purpose: To promote teamwork; to illustrate how we create our own barriers or limitations; that there is often more than one right way to accomplish a task.
Number of Participants: 10 or more.
Risk Level: low – moderate
Physical Demands: moderate
Materials/Special Requirements: Two same size, different color hula hoops for each group of 20 to 30 people.
Time Required: 15 – 20 minutes
Directions:
With large groups, form people into circles of about 20 to 30 people each.
Have the group(s) form in a circle and all hold hands.
Separate the hands of two of the participants and place one hula hoop between their hands. Their hands are then joined as they were so that the hula hoop is hanging down and resting on the point where their hands join
Give the direction that the group ‘s job is to pass the hula-hoop around the circle without breaking hands. Provide little or no direction as to how to proceed. People tend to pass the hula hoop either head or feet first or some combination – there is no “right” way to do it.
Once the hula hoop is passed about half-way around the circle, compliment the group. Indicate that since they are performing so efficiently (this can be stated in almost any circumstance since the group has no idea of how efficient or inefficient they are performing), another hula hoop is added at the point where the first hula hoop started. They are directed to pass this hula-hoop in the opposite direction.
Once that hula hoop starts moving around the circle, the direction is given that the two hula hoops must pass each other and keep moving around the circle (you will note that people begin to speed up the process following this direction).
When the hula-hoops meet at a person or between two people, the leader may need to encourage teamwork to get the hula hoops to pass each other and proceed. Once they pass each other, it is up to the leader if the hula-hoops should go around and pass each other again or not.
At the leader’s option, the first time around can be timed. The activity is then repeated to see if they the group can beat their previous time – they will.Activity: Peanutty
Purpose: To realization the uniqueness of people and things; to overcome fear of foolishness; to promote deferring judgment; to exercise one’s power of observation.
Number of Participants: 10 to 25
Time Required: 10 – 15 minutes
Risk Level: low
Physical Demands: low
Materials/Special Requirements: Bag of peanuts in the shell.
Directions:
Pass the bag of peanuts around and have each person take a whole peanut (one that is not cracked or broken) with the caution that they are not to eat it. If anyone doesn’t like their peanut (it’s cracked, “ugly”, etc.) they can exchange it for another peanut.
Tell the group that in about five to ten minutes they will be able to pick their peanut out from the peanuts of everyone in the group.
Give the direction that they are to take a minute and get to know their peanut. Ask how they might do that (sight, sound, smell, etc.). Encouraged the group members to note unique characteristics of the peanut such as it’s resemblance to people they know, special markings, etc.
After about a minute or two, have them introduce their peanut to one or two other people who are at their table or sitting nearby.
Next have that group introduce their peanuts to another group. After about five to ten minutes (depending on the size of the group), collect all the peanuts in a bag or envelope, mix them up, and dums them out on a table or the floor.
Direct the participants to go and find their own peanut – which most groups can do in a short period of time. Items other than peanuts could also be used for this activity such as lemons or oranges.Activity: Zoom
Purpose: To promote team building, cooperation, and fun.
Number of Participants: 10 – 30
Time Required: 10 minutes
Risk Level: low
Physical Demands: low
Materials/Special Requirements: none
Directions:
Direct the group to form a close circle and tell them they are going to pass the word “zoom” around the circle.
Pass the word “zoom” around the circle starting with the leader and moving to the left.
Suggest that the group is a racecar and that it is currently on “idle.” The challenge for the group will be to accelerate the car up to race speed.
Indicate that you believe they can get the car moving and suggest it is now in first gear.
Begin again with passing the word “zoom” around the circle at a faster pace. It can keep moving around the circle and can be increased to second, third, fourth and even fifth gear depending on how it is progressing.
When ready, the leader, or other driver, can put out a foot and slam on the break at which time everyone says “eeeekk!!!!” and the race is over.Activity: The Cocktail Frankfurter
Purpose: To become aware of new things; to illustrate how we can change our perspective.
Number of Participants: any number
Risk Level: low
Physical Demands: low
Materials/Special Requirements: none
Time Required: 3 minutes
Directions:
Ask all participants to set anything down that they may have in their hands.
Ask them to put their hands out to their sides with their index finger pointing forward while demonstrating how this is done.
Give the direction to bring their fingers forward about 6 – 10 inches in front of their eyes and have their finger tips meet (index finger only) directly in front of their eyes.
Tell them to look at the point where their fingers meet.
Give them the direction to relax their eyes and look beyond (e. g. across the room) where their fingers meet.
If they do it successfully, they should see a small cocktail wiener or frankfurter between their fingers. The cocktail frankfurter was always there – they just couldn’t see it until they were willing to change their perspective.Activity: Habits, Habits, Habits
Purpose: To illustrate how we all get into habits and it usually takes concentration and effort to break established habits.
Number of Participants: Any number
Time Required: 5 minutes
Risk Level: Low
Physical Demands: Low
Materials/Special Requirements: None
Directions: The following four activities all accomplish the same objective. Only one needs to be done to make the point. However, doing two of them is interesting in that, even after being “tricked” once, most people in the audience can be “tricked” the second time as well.
Ask the participants to say “shop” out loud five times in unison. Count to three and lead the participants in doing this. Then ask what do they do when the come to a green light. Most will say “stop” even though the correct answer is “go.”
Ask the participants to say “silk” out loud five times in unison. Count to three and lead the participants in doing this. Ask the group, “What do cows drink?” Most will say “milk” even though the correct answer is “water.”
Asks the participants to say “ten” out loud five times in unison. Count to three and lead the participants in doing this. Ask them, “What are aluminum cans made of?” Most will say “tin” even though the correct answer is “aluminum.”
Ask the participants to say “joke” out loud five times in unison. Count to three and lead the participants in doing this. Ask them “What dowe call the white of the egg?” Most will say “yolk” even though the correct answer is “the white.” An alternative to this is to have the participants spell “joke,” “folk,” and “poke.” Then ask them what we call the white of the egg.Activity: Knots / The Gordian Knot
Purpose: To promote creative problem solving, team building; communication; listening; to create an opportunity to observe leadership patterns in a group
Number of Participants: groups of 8 to 12
Time Required: 20 minutes
Risk Level: moderate
Physical Demands: moderate
Materials/Special Requirements: Sufficient space where groups of 8 – 12 people can form a circle. The activity works best with an even number of 8 to 12 people in a group although it can be tried with varying size groups
Directions:
Organize groups of 8 to 12 participants and request that they form a “tight” circle where they are standing directly next to each other.
Instruct them to reach into the middle of the circle and take the hands of two different people, other than the two people who are standing directly next to them.
Once this is accomplished, tell the group to try to come back to a circle without breaking hands.
They are allowed to pivot their hands and when they come back to the circle it does not matter if some or all participants are facing away from the circle rather than toward the middle as it was when they began the activity. Participants should inform the leader of any pain they may be experiencing asthere should be no pain involved in the exercise.
The fewer directions and less intervention the leader provides, the more creative the problem solving with each group.NOTE: Because of the random nature of how people take hands in their group, this exercise does not work 100% of the time. Groups are generally able to come back to a circle about 80% of the time. At times groups get “stuck” and cannot proceed. At those times, it may be appropriate to provide “knot-aid” where the leader breaks apart two hands randomly and either moves them around an “obstacle” or attaches them to two different hands. Another possibility is that the group comes up with two separate or interlocking circles, which indicates that they have gone as far as they can.
Activity: Human Sculpture
Purpose: To encourage participants to express their individual and group creativity, promote risk taking, trust, team building and practice of non-verbal communication
Number of Participants: 10 or more
Time Required: 10 -15 minutes
Risk Level: moderate
Physical Demands: moderate
Materials/Special Requirements: If there are more than 30 participants, groups of about 20 – 25 should be organized
Directions:
Divide the total group into two groups.
Direct half of the group to stand in the middle of the space in proximity to each other while the other half of the group stands in a circle around the first group.
Share that the people in the middle are the “clay” and the clay is surrounded by the “sculptors.”
The challenge for the sculptors is to create something aesthetically pleasing from the clay – the conditions are that all the pieces of clay need to be connected in some way and that “clay” should be placed only in positions they can maintain for two or three minutes without experiencing discomfort or pain.
It is a non-verbal activity so the sculptors are instructed that they cannot speak
A purpose of the activity is to promote trust so the “clay” have their eyes closed.
When the sculptors appear to be done creating their “masterpiece,” the leader directs the clay to hold their positions and open their eyes to see what has been created.
The roles are then reversed – the pieces of clay become sculptors; and the sculptors, clay (with considerable moaning and groaning – particularly on the parts of the former sculptors). They proceed in the same fashion as described for the first half of the experience.Note: It is typically more effective to have the “clay” close their eyes and give the sculptors the direction to begin without providing any time for them to plan. I recommend that you do not tell them the roles will be reversed until the first “sculpture” is complete.
Activity: Nine Dot Exercise
Purpose: to encourage thinking “outside the box,” to enhance skills of creativity and creative problem solving
Number of Participants: any number
Time Required: 10 – 15 minutes
Risk Level: low
Physical Demands: low
Special Requirements: participants will need pencil or pen and paper
Directions: Participants are asked to get paper and pencil or pen for an exercise in problem solving. They are given the following direction, “Please place nine dots on your paper in the following configuration.” The leader then shows them the arrangement of the nine dots on an overhead transparency, the chalk board or a flip chart. The nine dots are to be presented as follows:
Once they have copied the nine dots give the following direction. “Your challenge is to connect all nine dots with four straight lines without lifting your pen or pencil.” Allow two to five minutes for the participants to work on the solution. If there are any in the group who have completed the puzzle previously and can recall the solution, the leader should ask them determine how to connect all nine dots using just three straight lines. After a few minutes the leader can provide a hint that might aid in the solution. She/He asks what the participants see when the look at the nine dots. Someone should answer, “a square.” Remind them that you never called it a square; and, in fact, if they see a square when the look at the nine dots, it is unlikely they will be able to solve the puzzle. If the participants are still or more confused, the leader can ask why it would not be possible to solve it when one sees a square or a “box.” Someone might respond that you need to go or look outside the box/square in order to solve it, which is correct.
The leader can then show the answer or ask someone in the group to come up and demonstrate her or his solution.
Following is the four-line solution. Keep in mind that it could be drawn in four ways beginning at any of the four corners.
Source/Acknowledgement: Sidney Parnes and The Creative Education Foundation
Activity: Sixteen Square Exercise
Purpose: To foster creativity and creative problem solving
Number of Participants: any number
Time Required: 5 -10 minutes
Risk Level: low
Physical Demands: low
Special Requirements: sixteen square diagram (see below)
Directions: Participants are shown the sixteen square figure (can be on paper, flip chart, overhead transparency, etc.) and requested to tell how many squares they see. An early response is sixteen and, as the presenter waits for others, they should increase in number. The answer is 30 and is illustrated in the following smaller diagrams.
Source/Acknowledgement: Sidney Parnes and The Creative Education Foundation
Activity: Observation
Purpose: To promote environmental awareness and the challenges of making changes
Number of Participants: 2 or more
Time Required: 10 – 15 minutes
Risk Level: moderate
Physical Demands: low
Special Requirements: none
Directions: Two people stand facing each other for about 30 seconds. They they are directed to turn away from each other so they are in a back-to-back position. The leader directs them to change something about their physical appearance. They then turn back to each other to see if they can tell what the person changed. This can be repeated two more times with the participants changing different things each time.
When the activity is over, participants are asked if anyone kept things changed (e.g. moving a piece of jewelry to a different location, etc.) rather than put them back they way they were. This can illustrate how change is a challenge and that we are often more comfortable with routines.
Activity: Values Clarification: Forced Choices
Purpose: To have participants clarify what is important to them, what they value and to discuss that with others who feel similarly.
Number of Participants: 20 or more
Risk Level: moderate
Physical Demands: low0
Time Required: 10-20 minutes
Special Requirements: large space (depending on numbers)
Directions: Participants are told that they are about to engage in a “forced-choice” exercise where they will have to choose one of two options. The purpose of the activity is to have them select which of the two options they feel most aligned with and to discuss why with others who selected the same choice. Possible options for this activity are:
Which do you relate most to:
a race horse or a turtle
a sports car or a station wagon / van
dessert or the main course
a roller coaster or the merry-go-round
the city or the country
the novel on which the movie is based or the movie
the sun or the moon
love or money
others…
When the participants decide which of the two choices represents them, they move to one side or the other of the room, meet with other people who chose that option and discuss why they made that choice. Subsequently, it is opened up to the total group and members from each group share with the other why they selected the option they did and why they did not select the other option.
Activity: Add-venture
Purpose: to illustrate how we all develop habits and patterns of behavior that are difficult to change or break, the importance of thinking “outside the box”
Number of Participants: any number
Risk Level: low
Physical Demands: low
Special Requirements:
Equipment Required: Overhead projector and screen or flip chart / easel or chalk board.
Directions:
Place the number sequence below on an overhead transparency.
Tell the audience they will have an opportunity to participate in an activity that requires choral math.
Tell them you will be showing them numbers and they are to add them up in unison (with you leading).They are asked to tell the sum of the following numbers.
Present the first two numbers.
Reveal additional numbers going down one at a time.1000
401000
301000
201000
104100
When they get to the last number, participants typically say “5000” when the total is really 4,100. The nature of the activity leads them to the wrong answer, but it also shows how we get into rhythms, habits and patterns and, once we do, it is hard to vary from the path to see what is really happening.
Activity: Rain
Purpose: To promote teamwork, heighten sensory awareness and encourage visualization
Number of Participants: 10 – 20 if numbers are large, groups of about 20 can be formed.
Risk Level: low to moderate
Physical Demands: low
Time Required: 20 minutes
Special Requirements: members of the group should be seated directly next to each other in a circle on chairs or on the floor
Directions: Since this activity is entitled “rain,” it is appropriate to introduce it in relation to the rain (e.g. “Today it is raining so we will create our own rain inside.” “Since it hasn’t rained in awhile, we’re going to help things along by creating our own rainstorm today,” etc.). Tell the group that they will be creating a rainstorm and then have it go away in the next few minutes. First will come the drizzle which is created by participants rubbing their hands together to make a “shhhhh…” noise (have everyone practice this and the subsequent movements after each is described). Next the rain begins which is through snapping the fingers, then it begins to rain harder simulated by clapping hands, finally the storm really intensifies by stomping feet and slapping knees. As is the case in nature, this storm will subside by reversing the activities – feet stomping to clapping to finger snapping to palms rubbing and then the rain will stop.
Details as to how the storm progresses are then provided: all participants will have their eyes closed and not talk throughout the activity. The leader will begin each segment of the rain and storm and that movement and sound will progress around the circle to everyone’s left. Therefore, everyone will need to listen on her or his right side to know what to do. As soon as they hear the person on their right making a movement, they are to immediately duplicate it; and they are to continue that movement and sound until they hear another sound on their right. As soon as the leader hears the appropriate sound from the person on her/his right, she/he will move on to the next movement and sound. For instance, as soon as the “shhhhh” of palms rubbing goes around the circle and the leader hears it on the right, she/he will begin the snapping fingers sound and so on through the clapping and stomping of feet. As soon as stomping feet has moved around the circle, the leader begins the subsiding of the rain by beginning clapping and then on to snapping fingers and rubbing palms. It is important here that everyone listen carefully as it can be challenging to hear when the sounds change (e.g. from clapping to snapping fingers). When the leader hears the person on her/his right move from snapping to rubbing palms, this is a sign that the rain is over and the leader takes the hand of the person on her/his left. That person takes the hand of the person on her/his left and the taking of hands progresses around the circle. When the person to the right of the leader takes the leader’s right hand, the activity is over which the leader announces and tells everyone that they can open their eyes.
Activity: Amazing Prediction
Purpose: To illustrate how some things life are predictable; that if you have the correct formula, you have a better chance of getting the right answer
Number of Participants: any number
Time Required: Five minuntes
Risk Level: low
Physical Demands: low
Special Requirements: participants may need pencil or pen and paper
Directions: Tell the participants that you have been working on your ability to predict the behavior of others and you want to try it out with them. Then give them the following directions:
write down any three digit number (with no digits repeated – e.g. 426)
write that number down in the reverse order (e.g. 624)
subtract the smaller number from the larger number (624 – 426 = 198)
write that number backwards (891)
add the last two numbers together (891 + 198)Then you can tell them that their number is 1089 as that will always will be the answer if they did the math correctly.
Activity: Card Trick: See It In Your Eyes
Purpose: To challenge the assumptions of members of the audience, to provide a brief break from training, fun
Number of Participants: any number – you select one participant for this trick.
Risk Level: low
Physical Demands: low
Special Requirements: an ordinary deck of cards
Directions: The leader asks for a volunteer or selects someone from the audience. The leader shuffles the deck of cards in front of the audience two or three times. The cards are then fanned in front of the person selected and that person is asked to take any card. They look at the card and can show it to others. They then insert the card back in the deck. The leader states that, with practice, she/he has developed the ability to perceive subtle cues in people’s behavior and can even read the smallest eye movement. He directs the participant that when he/she sees the card as he shows the cards in the deck, they should try to make no eye, facial or body movements. The leader then passes the cards in front of the eyes of the spectator. In a short period of time he narrows the cards down to a small group and subsequently selects the card. She/He could also find out the person’s first name, spell out the name by turning over the cards and have the last card be the one they selected.
Secret of the Trick: For this trick you need a deck with a pattern or picture on the back of each card. This is called a “one-way” deck. Arrange all cards so they are facing in the same direction. When the spectator removes one card, turn your deck around so that when they insert it back in the deck, it is opposite all the other cards. When pretending to look in their eyes, look at the backs of the cards. Find the one that is opposite all the others and that is their card. To spell out their name, select the number of cards before the card that is opposite the others, so that when spelled out, the last card is the card they selected. NOTE: Watch the spectator to be sure they don’t turn their card around. If they do, have them check it again or show it to another person while you turn your deck around again.
Activity: Spirals
Purpose: To promote group bonding; to provide a closure experience for a group that has bonded and will be departing; to promote closeness in a group and team problem solving.
Number of Participants: 10 to 30 (if more than 30 participants, the total group should be divided so there are groups of 20 to 30 participants each). NOTE: It is recommended that the group(s) with which this activity is used have had experience with other team building exercises.
Time Required: 15 – 20
Risk Level: moderate
Physical Demands: low to moderate
Special Requirements: a large area inside or outdoors
Directions: The group is directed to form a circle and hold hands. The basic purpose of the activity is explained and they are told that they are to hold hands with those next to them throughout the activity. The leader then breaks the hands of two of the participants and guides one of them to the center of the circle with the others following and holding hands (this person can be selected ahead of time and told what they will be experiencing). That person is directed to stand in the spot at which they have been placed and not move her/his feet. The group is told that they will be slowly being organized around that center person and their arms may be stretched but they not be pulled to extent that they are very uncomfortable or experience pain. The person, not in the center who was holding hands with the person positioned in the center of the circle, begins SLOWLY walking around the outside of the circle still holding the hand of the person next to them and taking the entire group with her/him. Depending on the size of the group, it may take a few minutes for the center of the circle to start closing in on itself with people physically touching. It may be necessary to remind the person leading the group around the circle to slow down so participants don’t get dizzy. Eventually, the circle will be very tight and pressing against itself. At this point, the leader has several options. Asking the total group to move toward the leader as a group can create a challenge. The leader can have them take several steps in that direction and then move to the right or left or the other side of the circle and have them move in that direction.(NOTE: this is better for younger and more physically fit groups than older and not-so-fit groups). Another option is to have the group sing a song that would promote bonding – Kum-By-Yah, The Sufi Chant, Tell Me Why or some song that all participants know. The activity can then end or the circle can be unwound by having the person who lead the group to form the circle, reverse the direction and SLOWLY unwind the circle until it is back as it was.
Activity: Half of Eight
Purpose: to illustrate that there is often more than one correct answer to a challenge or problem even when it doesn’t seem like there is, to promote creativity and non-traditional thinking
Number of Participants: any number
Time Required: 5 minutes
Risk Level: low
Physical Demands: low
Special Requirements: chalk/white board, overhead projector or flip chart
Directions: The leader asks the audience, “What is half of eight?” Typically, people will respond that the answer is “four.” She/He then asks if there are any other answers. The leader should pause and wait here while people think of other possible answers. The leader then writes them on the board, overhead or flipchart. Possible answers include: 0, 3, and the letters E, S, M, W and eio / oht (half of the word “eight”). The 0 is the top or bottom half of the 8. The 3 or E are formed when the 8 is bisected down the middle. The M and W can be visualized with the 8 written so it is on it’s side.
Activity: Roman Numerals
Purpose: To promote creativity and creative problem solving
Number of Participants: any number
Time Required: 5 minutes
Risk Level: low
Physical Demands: low
Special Requirements: participants should have paper and pen or pencil available
Directions: Participants are presented with the challenge of converting the Roman Numerals IX into the number 6 by adding one line to the numerals. If asked, the leader can say that the one line can be curved. After giving them a few minutes to solve it, if no one has found the solution, the leader shows the answer: SIX.
Magic that can be purchased:
The following items are recommended as they are relatively easy to perform, require little practice, create very powerful effects and
Magic Coloring Book
Color Changing Ball-to-Square
Disappearing Water Trick (Slush Powder)
Rising card trick
Invisible deck
Change Bag / Repeat Change Bag
Appearing Cane
Appearing Ten-Foot Pole7/03
Promoting Creative Thinking in the College Classroom
Gerard J. Puccio & Mary C. Murdock Center for Studies in Creativity: Buffalo State College Introduction
Too little of our teaching is focused on nurturing students’ ability to think in creative ways. As a result an educational system that should train students to become independent thinkers ends up creating individuals who readily conform to prevailing thought, individuals who take a reactive rather than a proactive approach to problem solving, and individuals who would rather follow then lead. The educational experiences of many young people conditions them to take a passive approach to the learning process. They learn that the way to earn good grades and to make it through school successfully is to memorize information and to recall this information when called upon. Thus teachers often treat students as simple input-output systems; we pump information in, assess the information that comes out and do not concern ourselves with the extent to which the information has been internalized. This presents a serious threat to our society. We are in danger of producing a generation that is unable to engage in higher-order thinking skills; a generation that becomes trapped too easily by their own knowledge and are unable to challenge their own assumptions so that new knowledge can be created.
The purpose of this chapter is to explore ways in which college and university teachers can spark creative thinking in the classroom. It is our belief that creative thinking is applicable to all disciplines, therefore the information and models contained in this chapter can be applied readily to any classroom. Three principle assumptions guide this chapter. They are:
All students, to varying degrees, have the ability to think creatively;
Students’ level of creative thinking can be enhanced through purposeful educational activities, as well as the design used to deliver such activities; and
Creative thinking is a critical life skill that has a profound impact on students’ personal and professional lives.This chapter is organized into three sections. First, we discuss the importance of creativity, and more specifically, creative thinking. Second, we define creative thinking and provide examples of the specific thinking skills that support students’ ability to engage in creative thinking. Finally, we conclude this chapter by providing tips and strategies for promoting creative thinking in the higher education classroom.
The Importance of Creativity and Creative Thinking
Imagine our world without creativity. Stop to think what our lives would be like today if we had not reaped the compounding benefits of the creative spirit of so many generations. Examination across just two generations shows the remarkable advances our society has made. Consider the kinds of tangible and intangible products you have today that your grandparents did not have at your current age. Robert Fritz (1991), a composer, filmmaker and author, suggested that:
The creative process has had more impact, power, infuence, and success than any other process in history. All of the arts, many of the sciences, architecture, pop culture, and the entire technological age we live in exists because of the creative process. p. 5
Creativity is critical to the preservation and growth of a society. As noted by the historian Toynbee (1964), “To give a fair chance to potential creativity is a matter of life and death for any society” (p. 4). Toynbee argued that when nations nurture their citizens’ creative talent, they have a greater chance of making history, and conversely, those nations that ignore the creative talents of their people will be surpassed.
Let’s look at creativity at a more personal level by looking at the importance of creative thinking in our professional and personal lives. We suggested elswhere that creative thinking is an essential life skill (Puccio & Murdock, in press). For example, when we enter into our professional careers most of us are not given the ‘answer book’ to guide our decision making and provide solutions to the challenges we face. Rather, in many instances we must find our own way. Sure there is past knowledge and the experience of others for us to rely on, but this will not satisfy all of the challenges and opportunities we confront at work. Research conducted by the American Society for Training and Development in the late 1980’s found that creative thinking was one of the seven basic skill sets employers felt was critical to be successful in the workplace (Carnevale, Gainer, & Meltzer, 1990). With the ever increasing pace of change and the advent of our new economy, which might be described as the ‘idea’ economy since technology moves new ideas into the marketplace faster than ever before, creative thinking is perhaps even more crucial in today’s workplace than it was even a decade ago.
Given the complex nature of our personal lives, creative thinking plays a key role in ensuring success as we manage our homes, engage in relationships, raise our children, and entertain ourselves. Effective use of our imaginations bring diversity into our personal lives and enables us to think through challenges in new ways, to adopt new approaches and perspectives that at first were not apparent to us. Some scholars have suggested that creative thinking promotes positive mental health as it enables us to cope better with life’s challenges (Isaksen, 1987; Rogers, 1959; Torrance, 1962).
We have tried to make the case that creativity and creative thinking are center stage in our life experiences. If one accepts this assertion we then need to ask ourselves,”To what degree do our colleges and universities promote the development of creative-thinking skills so that our students can lead more productive personal and professional lives?” Torrance, a pioneer in the field of creativity, has consistently charged our schools with ignoring this critically important ability. Torrance and Safter (1990) argued:
As a result of powerful cultural forces, schools in the United States and other countries of the Western World have reverenced intelligence and logic to the neglect of intuitive and creative thinking. This cultural preference has been manifested in statements of educational goals, textbooks, the tests used to assess intellectual growth and achievement, procedures for identifying students for special treatment – and even in our policies. (p. 4)
In this section we made a subtle shift from discussing the importance of creativity to our society to the value of creative thinking. Although this shift in terminology may appear subtle, there are important conceptual distinctions between the terms ‘creativity’ and ‘creative thinking’. This chapter focuses on issue of how to promote creative thinking among students, not creativity in general. The section that follows takes a deeper look at what we mean be creative thinking.
Defining Creative Thinking & Unpacking the Skills that Promote It
Creativity is a broad construct whose definition has been elusive. Rhodes (1961) and Treffinger (1995), for example, have unearthed a combined total of more than 140 definitions of creativity. One clear theme has emerged from the plethora of creativity definitions. Many agree that creativity is a multi-faceted phenomenon, meaning that it involves the interaction of a number of dimensions (MacKinnon, 1978, Mooney, 1963). These dimensions can be articulated and there appears to be some consensus as to their nature. Specifically, four main facets have emerged. They are: the characteristics of the person (i.e., the creator), attributes of the product (i.e., the creation), attributes of the environment conducive to creative thought (i.e., the creative space), and the process that led to some creative outcome (i.e., creative thinking). When we use the term creative thinking, we are referring specifically to the creative process, that is the stages of thinking an individual goes through to generate original solutions to open-ended problems and opportunities. It is the ability to discover problems and opportunities, to generate novel ideas, and to transform these ideas into workable solutions. Creative thinking involves developing a clear vision of a future state and then delineating the steps necessary to achieve this image.
Creative thinking is a higher-order thinking skill comprised of many other abilities. Torrance (1979) articulated the abilities that can be subsumed by the broad term ‘creative thinking’ (see Table 1). Perhaps the most productive approach to develop students’ creative-thinking skills is to focus one’s efforts on the more concrete abilities subsumed by creative thinking. The abilities outlined by Torrance are more behavioral, and therefore easier to impact, than a global approach for promoting creative thinking. Trying to encourage creative thinking at its broadest level is like trying to make jello without a bowl, it’s simply to diffuse and as a consequence can run in many directions. By targeting specific abilities the college teacher is able to put a structure around creative thinking thereby allowing students to directly manipulate one aspect of creative thinking at a time. Like jello, instructors can then layer in different flavors at a time by building on a well formed foundation.
Insert Table 1 about here
The section that follows describes various strategies college and university instructors can use to improve creative thinking among their students. These strategies are not meant to be mutually exclusive. Rather, when used in combination their positive effects are likely to compound.
Strategies for Promoting Creative Thinking
The Incubation Model: Designing Lessons that Nurture Creative ThinkingBefore delving into a structure for lesson plans let us make one brief comment about instruction. It is our stance that student learning is enhanced through an active approach to instruction. That is we firmly believe that retention and skill development is enhanced when students participate in the learning process. As Torrance and Safter (1990) pointed out:
People prefer to learn creatively – by exploring, questioning, experimenting, manipulating, rearranging things, testing and modifying, listening, looking, feeling – and then thinking about it – incubating. Schools and colleges have insisted that people learn by authority – by being told , incubation takes too long and is uneconomical. (p. 13).
In general we believe that active instruction is most beneficial to student learning, and that in particular creative-thinking skills are best taught through experiential delivery modes. If instructors truly desire to impact students’ abilities to engage in creative thought, then they must allow students to become active partners in the learning process. Creative thinking is a dynamic process whose full effect can only be appreciated through engagement. Expecting students to engage in creative thinking after exposure through passive learning modes (e.g., lecture, reading, etc.), is analogous to a surgeon who is expected to conduct an operation for the first time after only reading about it.
Active learning must be thoughtfully woven into one’s instruction. Experiential activities must be carefully selected and developed so that they enrich learning rather than distract students from the main goal of a lesson. To avoid the perception that experiential learning activities are frivolous, they must be well set up, implemented and debriefed. Any active learning exercise should not be treated as an end, but as a valuable means to an end; which is to encourage creative thinking and to engage students actively in the teaching-learning process.
A teaching model that can be used to design effective lessons that include active learning exercises is the Incubation Model described by Torrance and Safter (1990). The purpose of the Incubation Model is to help teachers design learning experiences that facilitate creative thinking. This teaching model includes three levels, they are ‘warming-up’ (i.e., before), ‘digging deeper’ (i.e., during), and ‘extending the effort’ (i.e., after).
According to Torrance and Safter the purpose of warming-up includes sparking anticipation, creating a desire to know, getting attention, arousing curiosity, and encouraging motivation. The warming-up stage of a lesson is successful when the learner is able to see connections between the information about to be presented and his or her own life experiences.
During the digging-deeper stage the lesson is extended so that the anticipation aroused earlier can now be brought to a deeper level of understanding. Put in different words, the warming-up stage encourages students to unlock the doorway to their minds and the digging-deeper stage thrusts the door wide open. The digging-deeper stage is successful when students evaluate or re-evaluate information, seek new information, discard erroneous information, make new connections, experience all their senses, become absorbed in the material, or form hypotheses.
The purpose of the final stage of a lesson, ‘extending the effort’, is to encourage students to go beyond the information presented by the teacher or textbook. The information processing strategies Torrance and Safter associate with this stage include relating information to one’s own experiences, giving information personal meaning, seeing implications for one’s own future, seeking other resources for a deeper connection, and storing information for possible future use.
Besides the three-stage approach for designing lessons, another important feature of the Incubation Model is the concept that in addition to the content objectives of each lesson the teacher should include creative-thinking objectives. This ensures an effective marriage between content and process learning. Thus, for example, in addition to teaching about sociology of sex roles, Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, classical conditioning, strategic planning, reading methods, or other topics, the teacher endeavors also to get students to think creatively about the content and/or to use the content as a vehicle to develop creative-thinking skills. Teachers who are genuinely concerned about nurturing higher order thinking skills in their students, should explicitly incorporate creative-thinking skills objectives into their lessons. To illustrate how active learning activities can be incorporated into lessons through the Incubation Model, we include two sample lessons at the end of this chapter.
Understanding & Respecting Psychological Diversity Among StudentsEducators have become increasingly concerned with individual differences in regard to how students learn, think and show their competencies. We refer to this as psychological diversity. In some instances diversity is primarily defined by what you see on the surface (e.g., gender, age, ethnicity, etc.). These are important qualities to keep in mind as an educator, but we would extend this traditional view of diversity and encourage educators to think about the kind of diversity that lies below the skin. The kind of diversity that cuts across all groups. The kind of diversity that is not readily apparent by looking at a student’s face. In this brief chapter we will examine two forms of psychological diversity, namely how we differ with respect to styles of learning and forms of intelligence.
Learning styles relate to the way in which students “prefer to function, learn, concentrate, and perform during educational activities” (Dunn, Dunn, & Price, 1989; p. 6). Learning style refers to the preferred way in which a student processes information, not how well he or she processes. According to Carbo, Dunn and Dunn (1986) one of the most important recent instructional breakthroughs has been the practice of matching educational activities and environments to students’ preferred learning styles. A large number of empirical investigations have shown the positive effect this practice has had on student achievement (Dunn et al., 1989). This work has shown that students are much more likely to learn new material when they are taught through their preferred learning styles.
In describing what contributes to a student’s preferred learning style, Dunn, Dunn and Treffinger (1992) provided the following explanation, ” Emotional, sociological, physiological, and psychological characteristics – everything that controls how we concentrate on, process, and remember new and difficult information – contribute to learning style” (p. 18). To nurture students’ creativity, it is imperative for teachers to pay attention to the diversity of learning style preferences that probably exist in most classrooms. Individuals have greater access to their creative potential when they work in accordance to their preferred learning styles. When using their preferred styles, students engage in the mental operations that come most natural to them. Therefore, information is processed more efficiently, new connections are made more rapidly, and material is assimilated more effectively. As a higher order thinking skill, creativity is best accessed and nurtured through one’s natural way of learning.
According to Rita Dunn, who is one of the foremost learning style researchers, most students learn through one of two learning styles – global or analytic. Global students need to know why they are learning a particular piece of information. They learn best through humor, illustrations, symbols, and graphics (Dunn, Dunn, & Treffinger, 1992). They are more likely to understand what is being taught when it is connected to something that is familiar or important to them. This can be accomplished, for example, through stories or anecdotes. Some characteristics associated with global learners include: the need for sound, soft lighting, an informal seating (e.g., easy chair, couch, bed, etc.), and snacking while learning and creating. In contrast to the global person, the analytic learns best from taking a step-by-step approach to new information. They like to move from one discrete fact or unit of information to the next in a building process. Analytic types prefer quiet, bright lights and formal seating (e.g., hard chair, desk) while learning and creating. Analytic types like to work on one task at a time and strive to complete that task before moving onto the next.
A number of psychological measures have been developed to help individuals identify learning style preferences, one of the most widely used measures was created by Rita Dunn. In fact, Dunn has created two versions of her style measure, one for children (Learning Style Inventory; Dunn, Dunn, & Price, 1989a) and the other for adults (Productivity Environment Preference Survey; Dunn, Dunn, & Price, 1989b). The more than 20 specific preferences measured by these inventories are categorized into four domains: environment (e.g., Sound, Temperature, Light, and Design); (2) emotional (e.g., Motivation, Responsibility, Persistence, and Structure); (3) sociological needs (e.g., Learning Alone or Peer Oriented, Authority Figure Present, and Learn in Several Ways); and, (4) physical needs (e.g., Auditory, Visual, Tactile, and Late Morning). Dunn relates the specific style preferences to the general categories of global and analytic described earlier.
Certainly it is important for teachers to be aware of how students’ learning style preferences influence how they process new information, but it is also important to recognize that our own preferred orientation to learning may unwittingly influence how we convey information and structure learning activities. The danger is that we might limit our teaching strategies to our own preferred learning style preference. As a result we may not connect well to students who do not share our orientation. We must also be aware how our own style influences our expectations and images of the ideal student. We may be quick to negatively judge or dismiss students who do not learn the way we do. By understanding the broad categories of learning style, as well as the more specific preferences, posited by Dunn, we as teachers can begin to assess our own biases with regard to the teaching-learning process.
Another important dimension of individual differences that teachers might wish to take into consideration is Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences. Where learning style is principally concerned with diverse ways in which students process new information, the theory of multiple intelligences explains how students express diverse forms of competence and potential.
Creativity does not come in just one form. There are many ways in which people demonstrate their creative talents. Howard Gardner’s (1993b) work on multiple intelligences provides a framework for understanding different ways in which creativity can be made manifest. As with the development of a broader perspective on how students learn new material, it is also important for teachers to broaden their expectations with regard to how students may demonstrate their competence.
The main thrust of Gardner’s work is to challenge the traditional view of intelligence; that is the narrow view that intelligence is a singular phenomenon that principally involves logical and linguistic abilities. Gardner (1993b) argued that “if we are to encompass adequately the realm of human cognition, it is necessary to include a far wider and more universal set of competencies than we have ordinarily considered” (p. X). It is also important to note that Gardner vehemently rejected the assertion that human intellect can accurately be measured by a paper-and-pencil test. Others, such as J. P. Guilford (1977), have argued that the standardized measures of intelligence that are widely used in our educational system overlook the diverse ways in which humans can display cognitive abilities.
Building on these theoretical assumptions Gardner set out to identify a more diverse set of competencies that more broadly capture human intellect. Using a set of eight criteria, such as support from psychometric findings and an identifiable core operation or set of operations, Gardner began to evaluate various intelligences. As a result of the application of his criteria, Gardner identified seven intelligences. He defined intelligence as “the ability to solve problems, or to create products, that are valued within one or more cultural settings” (Gardner, 1993, p. X).
The seven forms of intelligence identified by Gardner were: linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, and interpersonal. Linguistic intelligence refers to an individual’s ability to form a special relationship with words. Elements within this relationship include a sensitivity to the meaning and order of words, as well as sound, rhythms, inflections, and meters of words. Musical intelligence embodies a sensitivity to pitch, rhythm, and timbre. Logical-mathematical intelligence refers to the ability to cope with many variables at once and to be able to solve problems before articulating them. Spatial intelligence relates to one’s ability to perceive the visual world, to modify one’s perceptions, and to recall visual experiences. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is primarily concerned with an individual’s ability to manipulate objects or to skillfully control one’s bodily motions. Finally, Gardner describes two forms of personal intelligence. Interpersonal intelligence refers to self-knowledge, that is an understanding of one’s own emotions and personal histories. While interpersonal intelligence relates to how we perceive and respond to others; in particular the capacity to be sensitive to others’ moods, intentions, and motivation.
Gardner’s concept of intelligence, which again focuses on the ability to solve problems, find problems and to create products and knowledge, can easily be linked to our view of the creative thinking process. To underscore this link the reader may recall that earlier we defined creative thinking as the ability to solve problems in new and useful ways. Therefore, one could interpret the various forms of intelligence identified by Gardner as different ways in which people display their creative talents. His work shatters the notion that there is a single way to be creative, rather taking Gardner’s model there are at least seven ways in which people manifest their creativity. Gardner (1993a) has elaborated on the link between creativity and his seven intelligences by carrying out extensive biographical reviews of seven highly creative people who represent different intelligences (i.e., Freud, Einstein, Picasso, Stravinsky, Eliot, Graham, and Gandhi) .
Gardner’s theory raises two important implications for educators. First, as with learning styles, it is likely that students in our classes display a range of intelligences and we must be aware of our potential biases towards any one or a limited number of these intelligences. Two, creative thinking must be nurtured in all disciplines. Creativity is not limited to any one discipline, such as art. It plays an integral role in all disciplines. Creative thinking allows us to develop new knowledge and thus to expand the frontiers of all disciplines.
The previous section began by describing the value of experiential learning methods in our classrooms. An understanding of how students are psychologically diverse can help educators pinpoint specific ways in which active learning can be incorporated in their classrooms. Educators should seek ways to involve students in the learning process that cut across the various learning styles described above and allow students to demonstrate their competencies through the forms of intelligence outlined by Gardner.
Providing Direct Instruction in Creative Thinking Principles, Tools and ProcessesOne sure way to enhance students’ ability to think creatively is to provide them with principles and tools that can guide their thinking. A structured approach to the creative process that presents learners with useful principles and tools is the Creative Problem Solving model. Created more than 50 years ago, Creative Problem Solving (CPS) is one of the most widely used and researched models for fostering creative thinking.
CPS is a framework that formalizes a natural process. Since CPS articulates a natural process, it is easy to learn and to take on board. Furthermore since CPS explicates a way of thinking, the framework allows us to raise the probability of successfully resolving problems in creative ways.
CPS involves four main areas of operation. The first is called “Assessing the Situation” which is focused on two main activities: (1) identifying and describing the data associated with the situation; and (2) determining the next process step. Assessing the Situation serves as the executive stage otof the CPS model. It is used metacognitively to determine where to start in the CPS framework and to monitor continued effort throughout CPS. Assessing the Situation is the heart of the process, as it is always the starting point and determines the flow through the process. The remaining areas of operation include: Identify a Direction, Transform Ideas into Solutions, and Implement. These areas can be thought of as zones of activity within the process. The purpose of Identify a Direction zone is to (1) develop a vision for a desired outcome and (2) clarify the challenges that stand between you and the desired outcome. The purpose of the Transform Ideas into Solutions zone is to (1) generate novel ideas and (2) develop the ideas into solutions. The purpose the Implement zone is to (1) test solutions so the likelihood of success is improved and (2) develop an implementation plan.
What makes CPS work is the effective use of a variety of thinking skills that are associated with the specific areas of activity within the process . Thus, when students are taught CPS they are learning a variety of important thinking skills that together lead to effective creative thinking. These thinking skills are summarized in Figure 1 (figure to be created).
In addition to the specific thinking skills associated with each stage are two thinking skills that cut across every stage of the CPS model, they are divergent and convergent thinking. Divergent thinking refers to a broad search for many diverse and novel options. While convergent thinking refers to a focused and affirmative evaluation of possibilities. This is why each stage is graphically represented by a diamond, where the diamond opens in divergent thinking, where it comes to a point represents convergent thinking. Perhaps the most immediate way to enhance a student’s capacity to think creatively is to teach them how to separate divergent and convergent thinking. Far too often we seek ideas by using these two forms of thinking concurrently. We think of an idea and then immediately judge it. This then requires us to restart the search for another idea. Rather than taking this start and stop approach to thinking, we recommend that one first create the menu of options through divergent thinking and afterwards shift to into a convergent mode and begin to evaluate these options.
Separating these two forms of thinking is not sufficient to improve our ability to engage in these respective skills. Principles for thinking can be used to guide our divergent and convergent thinking skills. Four thinking principles to keep in mind when the goal is to think divergently are (1) suspend evaluation, (2) strive for quantity, (3) allow for novel ideas, and (4) build on options. Four useful rules for improved convergent thinking are (1) use affirmative judgment, (2) remember your objectives, (3) consider novelty, and (4) seek to improve ideas (Vehar, Miller, & Firestien, 1999).
CPS is a toolbox for thinking. Within the model are tools that help to carry out the various functions of the process. For example, there are tools that help to choose what direction to pursue and to identify the problems that must be overcome to achieve some desired outcome. There are tools for generating ideas and selecting the most promising solutions. Therefore, when a student learns CPS they learn thinking tools that enable them to more effectively engage in the main activities associated with each area of the process.
Another key advantage of teaching students CPS is that they now have a framework that can be used to enhance their thinking about their own thinking. In other words, once internalized CPS can be used to help students figure out where they are with respect to a challenge or opportunity. This insight can lead to more efficient and productive thinking.
There is insufficient space to go into great depth with regard to the CPS process. For further information on CPS see Isaksen, Dorval and Treffinger (2001) or Vehar, Miller, and Firestien (1999).
Conclusion
Creative thinking is a skill like any other ability, such as playing golf, reading, typing, driving, or playing chess. We all have the capacity to think in creative ways and as with other abilities, individuals possess varying levels of creative ability. Like all abilities, whatever an individual’s current level of skill may be it can be enhanced. Numerous research studies have demonstrated the fact that creative-thinking skills, such as those identified by Torrance, can be taught (Parnes & Noller, 1972; Torrance 1972; Torrance & Presbury, 1984). Through thoughtful construction of our lesson plans instructors can do more to enhance this important skill. To stimulate further thoughts about how to develop creative thinking among students, there is a checklist of strategies you might wish to review at the very end of this paper. References
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Dunn, R., Dunn, K., & Price, G. E. (1989b). Productivity Environmental PreferenceSurvey (PEPS). Lawrence, KA: Price Systems.
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Isaksen, S. G., Dorval, K. B., & Treffinger, K. B. (2001). Creative approaches to problem solving (2nd ed). Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishers.
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Mooney, R. L. (1963). A conceptual model for integrating four approaches to the identification of creative talent. In C. W. Taylor & F. Barron (Eds.), Scientific creativity: Its recognition and development (pp. 331-340). New York: Wiley.
Parnes, S. J., & Noller, R. B. (1972). Applied creativity: The creative studies project: Part II – Results of the two-year-program. The Journal of Creative Behavior, 6, 164-186.
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Torrance, E.P. (1962). Guiding creative talent. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Torrance, E. P. (1979). The search for satori and creativity. Buffalo, NY: Creative Education Foundation in association with Bearly Limited.
Torrance, E. P. (1972). Can we teach children to think creatively? The Journal of Creative Behavior, 6, 114-143.
Torrance, E. P., & Presbury, J. (1984). The criteria of success used in 242 recent experimental studies of creativity. The Creative Child and Adult Quarterly, 9, 238-243.
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Toynbee, A. (1964). Is America ignoring her creative minority? In C. W. Taylor (ed.), Widening horizons in creativity (pp. 3-9). New York: Wiley.
Treffinger, D. J. (1995). Creativity, creative thinking, and critical thinking: In search of definitions (Idea capsule report 5001). Sarasota, FL: Center for Creative Learning. Table 1
Creative-Thinking Skills Identified by Torrance
Creative-Thinking Skills
Finding the problem
Producing alternatives
Originality
Abstracting (highlighting the essence)
Elaborating
Keeping open
Being aware of and using emotions
Putting ideas into context
Combining and synthesizing
Visualizing richly and colorfully
Fantasizing
Using movement and sound
Looking at things from a different perspective
Visualizing things internally
Extending boundaries
Humor
Respect for infinityLesson One: Role Play in an Education Class
Content Goal: To teach education majors about the impact that the classroom environment has on students’ ability to effectively learn and perform.
Creative Thinking Goal: To stimulate students’ ability to produce alternatives, to elaborate on their ideas, and to be aware of their emotions.
Warming-up
Ask the class to think back to a very positive experience; an experience that had a structure and clear goal, such as a job, internship, organization, club, or team. Ask students to individually record what made the situation so enjoyable. After some time have the students share their observations. Look for examples that relate to psychological environment. Connect the students’ observations to research on on psychological climate (i.e., Ekvall, 1991) and how it either encourages or inhibits productive and creative thinking. Define psychological climate and describe Ekvall’s ten dimensions of the creative climate: challenge, freedom, idea-support, trust, dynamism, playfulness, debates, conflicts, risk taking, and idea-time. As these dimensions are reviewed relate them to students’ own experiences.
Digging-Deeper
Break the class into small groups. Inform the groups that to demonstrate their understanding of these dimensions they are going to perform a three to five minute skit either depicting how these dimensions can be used to foster either a positive or negative classroom environment. Each team is to select three of Ekvall’s dimensions and bring them to life by performing a skit. To ensure a balance of illustrations, the instructor assigns whether a group will represent a positive or negative classroom environment. Groups have approximately twenty minutes to prepare. Skits are performed. After each skit the instructor asks the class to identify the three dimensions they thought the group chose to depict in their skit. After all skits have been presented talk about what factors impacted the nature of the climate in the skits. In particular, focus the conversation on the role of the teacher in the skits and how the teacher set the tone for the psychological climate.
Extending the Effort
Ask one-half of class to think back to their favorite course of all time and the other half to think back to their least favorite course of all time. Ask all the students to rate these courses against the ten dimensions discussed in class. Rate each dimension on a scale from ‘1’ (not descriptive at all) to ‘5’ (very descriptive). Instruct students to explain the rating assigned to each climate dimension. Next class, or if time permits during the present session, have students work with a partner who evaluated the opposite class. In these pairs compare ratings. Share results of conversation and teacher ask the class the impact these respective environments had on their attitude, feelings, behavior and performance in these situations. Lesson Two: Interpretation Exercise Applied to a Business Class
Content Goal: To help students recognize the impact culture has on their behaviors, values, and beliefs.
Creativity Goal: To stimulate students’ ability to put ideas into context, to look at things from a different perspective, and to be aware of their emotions.
Warming-up
Begin lesson by sharing the following definition of culture “shared values, assumptions, and beliefs.” Ask the class to think about the American culture and to consider what it means to be an American. Ask the students to generate a list of values, assumptions, and beliefs that capture the essence of America. After the list is generated ask students how similar or different this list is to other countries and cultures. Discuss the implications of this list.
Digging-Deeper
To help students understand the impact of culture create some groups of students who have a common interest or characteristic. Form groups such as: athletes, pet owners, computer owners, artists, students raised in cities, students raised in rural areas, etc. Continue creating teams until there is a small number of students remaining (no less than the number of groups created). The former groups become the culture teams and the latter are labeled the ‘outsiders.’
Describe the objective of the activity: “We have created two types of teams, the culture teams and the outsiders. At least one outsider will approach each culture team. Their objective is to present an argument that convinces you, the culture team, that they share the same values, assumptions and beliefs of your team and therefore should be admitted to your group. The objective of the culture team is to present an argument back that demonstrates why the outsider does not belong. If the outsider can get one member of the team to agree to his or her argument than he or she should be admitted to the culture team.”
Once the instructions and objectives are understood ask the culture teams to create a list of the values, assumptions, and beliefs that define their group. For example, the athletes might say: determined, hard working, respect your body, respect your competition, learn to cooperate, etc. While the culture teams define their culture, the outsiders are assigned to one of the culture teams. They begin to think about the characteristics the culture teams will use to define themselves. Once all groups, culture teams and the outsiders, have had sufficient time to prepare, the debates can begin. Have the outsiders approach their assigned culture team and present their arguments. Outsiders should remain standing until they are admitted into the culture team, if not admitted they must remain standing and continue the debate. Allow the discussions continue for some time.
Extending the Effort
Debrief the activity by discussing what the experience was like for the individuals in the two different roles. Begin with the members of the culture teams. Ask them how they felt, what they observed, what the experience was like being on the inside of a group. Then address similar questions to the outsiders. Explore how differently one’s perceptions can be altered by one’s role in this activity. Discuss the benefits and limitations of being an insider, discuss the benefits and limitations of being an outsider. Through questioning strategies attempt to relate this to real life experiences. Discuss how this happens inside organizations and the impact, both positive and negative, that an organization’s culture has on its employees. Discuss how increased globalization brings together people from diverse native cultures and how those individuals might misjudge one another based on their cultural mindsets. Assign additional reading on the topic. Checklist for Promoting Creative Thinking in the Higher
Education Classroom
Use the checklist below to consider strategies for promoting creative thinking in your classroom. Obviously not all of the items will be applicable or appropriate to all instructional settings or subject matter. We suggest you use this checklist to help you reflect on how you approach instruction, design, and delivery.
__ I vary the kinds of instructional activities I use with my students.
__ I include experiential activities in my lessons.
__ I create opportunities that allow students to react to the course content.
__ I have students think about the significant challenges and issues associated with the course content.
__ I have students generate potential solutions related to the main problems and challenges associated with the course content.
__ I encourage students to use their imagination when carrying out tasks or assignments.
__ I actively encourage students to connect the course content to other disciplines and vice versa.
__ I challenge my students to think, not simply to memorize information.
__ I create opportunities for students to engage in cooperative learning.
__ I use technology to enhance instruction and to stimulate students.
__ I use a mix of assignments that engage students in different thought processes and potentially meet different forms of intelligence.
__ I listen openly to students’ opinions.
__ I create a positive learning environment by providing affirmative feedback to students.
__ I use authentic assessment methods to evaluate student performance.
__ I encourage students to debate issues.
__ I allow students to make choices that guide their own learning (e.g., assignments, topics, projects, etc).
__ I model creative thinking for my students.